Between Marginality and National Unity: The Flourishing of Minority Cinema in Early Communist China (1949-1966)

Eva Xu

2025

The main topic of my paper originated from my past experiences living in a region with a mixed ethnicity population. As a Han ethnic born in Urumqi, ethnic minorities such as Uyghurs and Kazakhs were part of my community as I grew up. Later, when I moved out of Xinjiang, I found that most people around me had a slightly different yet overall similar impression of the minorities compared to mine. Therefore, when considering the topic of the paper, I sought an aspect and medium through which I could research and discuss the development of the impression of ethnic minorities in China. In the end, I decided to focus on minority films, and The Visitors in the Icy Mountain was the first one I reviewed, as it is set in Xinjiang. Then, I moved on to other minority films also produced by the Changchun Film Studio, such as Liusanjie and Wuduojinhua. Despite the applauding comments these films receive from general viewers today, I wanted to explore how they have caused long-term influences on minorities. To do this, I looked through past reviews, records, and even criticisms of them. One main criticism of minority films is that they are overly romanticized and intended to reinforce Han-centralism. However, as I examined more past newspaper articles, magazines, and interview transcripts, I realized that the production groups conducted extensive research on the minority groups to create the films. This led me to question whether the intention of the films was merely to convey Han-centralism, especially since the minority customs were not presented in a simply romanticized form. Accordingly, I created this paper to extend and elaborate on the ideas I concluded from my research. 

I want to argue that the Changchun Film Studio did not create the minority films to restrict or assimilate minority cultures. Instead, the continuous efforts they made demonstrate a devotion to spreading the diverse and unique cultures of these groups. Indeed, their efforts could lead to positive influences on minority groups, such as increasing public awareness of minorities and, in fact, preserving their cultural traditions. This connects to the theme of rights and responsibilities, as the Changchun Film Studio took on the responsibility of presenting minority characteristics with authenticity, while ethnic minorities retained their right to continue their cultural traditions while participating in the developing modernization. 

Regarding the broader historical significance, I believe that an awareness of the illustration and representation of minorities in the public sphere emphasizes a long-lasting responsibility to preserve the rights of minorities in a diverse community. The Changchun Film Studio’s efforts to authentically represent minority cultures highlight the importance of media in advocating for the acceptance and celebration of diversity. By doing so, these films not only fulfilled a responsibility to represent minority cultures accurately but also upheld the rights of these communities to maintain their unique identities in the face of modernization. This dual focus on rights and responsibilities underscores the lasting significance of these films in promoting cultural diversity and inclusivity in China 

Introduction 

Melodious songs flew from wide rivers, dense forests, and snowy mountains in 1960s Chinese cinemas. Through these films, many Chinese received their first impression of ethnic minorities in the country. In Wuduojinhua (1959), the diligent and loyal traits of the Bai nationalities were depicted as Peng looked for his lover in the forest.1In Liusanjie (1960), the unity of the Zhuang nationality was displayed in songs that mythical Liusanjie sang with residents.2In The Visitors in the Icy Mountains (1963), the beauty of Ugyur and Kazakh culture impressed the audiences as the melody of folk song flew across the icy mountain.3 

All of the films mentioned above were produced by the Changchun Film Studio, which was the first film studio that Communist China founded in 19454. In the 1950s, China's internal instability continued as internal conflicts and external threats remained, and the modernization and industrialization of the entire society based on socialist ideas were in crucial progress. That said, “the unification of the state and the nation is one of the crucial tasks for the new regime. In the late 1950s and 1960s minority nationality films appeared as an essential cinema genre.”5

In this context, the Changchun Film Studio began to produce more movies regarding the subjects of minority groups. Described as “the cradle of Chinese movies”6, the studio produced many films in this new genre. These included classic and popular films such as Visitors on the Icey Mountains (1963), Liusanjie (1960), and Wuduojinhua (1959), which centered around minority groups. These movies were not only filmed in the actual place but also, according to interviews of the actors in the industry, completed after close study of the residents.7 Because of their close collaboration with local communities and vibrant depictions of minority cultures, the films became very popular across the country. 

As said, the films included ethnic minorities and integrated their cultures with socialist ideas that eulogized farmers and the working class.8 While it seemed like the films were intended to present the beauty of the minority culture, some argued that they were generalizing and fantasizing about the minority groups to enforce ethnic unity in China.9 As such, by studying the history of production behind these films, this paper will also discuss the intention and impact of films produced by the Changchun film industry about ethnic minorities in China. 

The films were shot after detailed research in the actual places depicted and involved the participation of local minorities. The efforts expended in accurately depicting these cultures suggest that these films were not simply romanticized depictions of the ethnic minorities and were not aimed at assimilating them and conveying Han-centralism. Indeed, these films attempted to ensure ethnic minorities had the right to have their cultures preserved and promoted. It speaks to the responsibility of the media in advocating for a wider acceptance of the minority group within a Han-majority country. 

More than Romanticization: Documentation of Cultural Customs in Ethnic Minority Films Despite the debated purpose of ethnic minority films, it is undeniable that they presented and preserved the unique cultural customs of the ethnic minorities. No clearer is this seen than in the use of folk songs and dances in the films that highlight the uniqueness of each ethnic minority group. These films adapted these folk songs to preserve and portray the culture of these ethnic minority groups. In the beginning of Wuduojinhua, the protagonists Peng and Jinhua sit by a pond and sing antiphonally in the “Shanxi dialect” of Bai nationality. This scene utilized what is called “duige 对歌” in Chinese music, a back-and-forth musical dialogue between two singers that was common in the folksongs of many ethnic minority groups, including the Bai people depicted in Wuduojinhua. The lyrics were written by Ji Kang and the music composed by Lei Zhenbang,10the “Father of Chinese film music”11 who contributed significantly in the production of the film. When the film director Wang Jiayi struggled with how to turn the script into a movie, Lei recommended they transform all dialogue into duige, or antiphonal singing. After studying various folk songs, he believed that this style was very flexible and could easily form connections with the audiences.12 As such, the lyrics of the songs are very lifelike and down-to-earth, so the language “filled with colloquial expressions and metaphors……convey not only the life philosophies and views on love……but also the cultural practices, ways of life, and emotional expressions of the Bai ethnic community.”13 These songs had high fidelity to local culture, and did not simply romanticize minority groups, and strove instead to represent the culture of the Bai nationality realistically. After experiencing the success of Wuduojinhua, Lei suggested the director Su Li transfer all dialogues in the film into antiphonal singing. The film is an adaptation of a Chinese opera of the same name, which centered around a mythical figure, Liusanjie, in the local folktales of Guangxi. By incorporating local folk songs and traditional music practices into the film, the film’s artistic sense is built upon respect for ethnic minority customs. 

Research and interactions with local communities 

Moreover, the inclusion of folksongs required a lot of research and interaction with local communities. Lei Zhenbang, to uphold local Guangxi culture in the film Liusanjie, spent a month collecting hundreds of local folk songs in Guangxi, and later used these melodies in the film Liusajie.14 Likewise, when Lei Zhenbang composed one of the most famous songs in the 1960s, “Why Are the Flowers so Red”, for the film The Visitors in the Icy Mountain, he undertook rigorous fieldwork in Xingjiang, where the film would take place. There, the filming group had “ascended the Pamir Plateau to visit the frontier defense forces” listening to the stories of the “commander of the frontier outpost” about the sacrifices of the soldiers.” Also, they were closely in touch with the “Tajik ethnic group in Tashkurgan, participating in extraordinarily lively weddings, watching the thrilling buzkashi matches, and enjoying the exquisite melodies of the eagle flute and rawap.”15 As these experiences are all “later woven into the creation and filming of the movie”16, the portrayal of the local customs in the films are not merely fantasizing the minorities and only intended to romanticize and assimilate them. Based on this research, Lei created the famous “Why are the Flowers so Red” originated from the Tajik folk songs and included it in the film.17 The strong emotions it conveyed, which led to its popularization, were a reflection of Lei Zhenbang’s own attachment to the local culture. These efforts demonstrate that these films were not simply stereotyping ethnic minorities, but were sincere attempts to preserve and respect local customs. 

Participation of ethnic minorities in these films 

These films also empowered ethnic minority groups by ensuring their participation in depicting their own cultures. For example, Zhang Xue claimed that, in the film Liusanjie, the actress of the character Liu Sanjie is a Zhuang ethnic girl named Huang Wanqiu, who wasand she is “able to integrate her love for her own ethnic group into her roles……faithfully portraying her characters……aligns with the customs and characteristics of her ethnic group.”18 Furthermore, the lead singer of the film, Fu Jinhua, is also a renowned Zhuang actress, and, according to Zhang Xue, “her voice” embodies “the natural and beautiful vocal qualities characteristic of the Zhuang people with a distinct wildness reminiscent of pristine green mountains and a simple, ethnic charm,” and these strengths made the songs of the film more poised, “enhancing the beauty, appeal, and rhythmic quality” of Zhuang music.19 Zhuang ethnicity are known for their singing and dancing, the film attempted to present the beauty of their customs with great respect by investigations and with the help of the ethnic group. This example shows that ethnic minority participation in these groups gave them agency in the depiction of their own cultures. 

Positive portrayals of ethnic minority groups 

Despite emphasizing the uniqueness of ethnic minority groups, these films did not treat them as a separate group entirely; in fact, we can see attempts to incorporate the minority groups into the development of socialism and the ongoing modernization process in China. For instance, Yuan Shouying has argued that the film Wuduojinhua connected the bold and enthusiastic love between the protagonists with the broader social context of the Great Leap Forward period.20 As Yuan suggests, the love between Peng and Jinhua is not restricted to the two individuals, but also contributed to the broader construction of the society under socialism.21 Accordingly, this symbolized an “advocated new relationship between people within the new era of China”22 according to Yuan. In other words, the ethnic minorities, instead of being marginalized, stereotyped, or romanticized in the minority films, were celebrated for their progressive spirit during the modernization. 

Moreover, minority films were able to present content different from the common films in the period, and this is primarily because of their minority identity. For instance, while in the 1950s and 1960s most presentations of “love and desire were suppressed” in public, in Wuduojinhua, the loving relationship between Jinhua and Peng is presented honestly and directly. This is an example of how “ethnic minority films” could “provide an ideal model of free love.”23 As Fang Hui suggested, “Wuduojinhua is a remarkably progressive film; it would never have been made if it were not for its ethnic minority theme.”24 Therefore, the “showcases the romantic spirit of the ethnic minorities in the borderlands” has illustrated “Bai people's passionate pursuit of love."25 Also, the representation of love also persisted in other minority films such as The Visitors in the Icy Mountains and Liusanjie. Therefore, it can also be seen that in the era in which the theme regarding love is restricted and limited to implicit expressions, ethnic minority films came to be beloved for depicting passionate love, and ethnic minority groups came to be celebrated. 

Long-term positive impact of ethnic minority films 

All three of the films discussed were remarkably well-received once they were screened. “Wuduojinhua was screened in 54 countries and regions worldwide, setting a record at the time for the highest number of copies of a Chinese film distributed abroad.”26 Later, Liusanjie became “the highest-grossing film in Chinese cinema history since its initial release in 1960” and was once ranked as one of the top ten films in the world by Malaysia.27 After that, The Visitors in the Icy Mountains was “ranked among the top in the third ‘Hundred Flowers Awards’ organized by Popular Cinema……”28 Later, it was even commented as "a milestone work in the history of genre film development in New China.”29 Thus, the minority films produced by the Changchun Film Group Studio have created a positive long-term impact on the public impression of minority groups in China. However, scholars have debated whether the films were raising people’s awareness about ethnic minorities and encouraging inclusiveness of ethnic minorities, or stereotyping minority groups to reinforce Han dominance in the nation. In a recent review, Yingjin Zhang argues that minority films functioned for the “nation-state to objectified minority peoples through stereotypes and co-opted them in the construction of a socialist China,” thus “maintaining the Han cultural hegemony in the nation.”30 To support this argument, Zhang mentioned that the films incorporated abundant “stereotypical” elements. For example, ethnic minority characters were “stereotypically presented as fond of song and dance, dressed in gorgeous colors, decorated with flashy ornaments”.31 

In addition to the criticism of the overly ornamented clothes and stereotypical songs that supported the argument of “Han cultural hegemony”32, the fact that the main composers of the films did not share the same ethnicity as the subjects they filmed caused further critique. For instance, for Wuduojinhua, the directors Wang Jiayi, scriptwriter Zhao Jikang and Wang Gongpu, and photographer Wang Chunquan were of Han ethnic.33 This led scholars such as Fang Hui to claim that “the film” is “largely intervenes from the perspective of the ‘Other’” and “through a fictional narrative of ethnic others to articulate mainstream cultural values, showcasing the relationship between the Han and ethnic minorities through a cultural model of subject and object," and indeed advocates for a “stronger ideological color advocating for ethnic unity.”34 These scholars largely focus on the negative influence of the films in stereotyping the ethnic minorities and enforcing Han-centralism. Moreover, they support their argument through denying the “correctness” or “appropriateness” of the ethnic minorities’s cultural element in the films and emphasizing the lack of the involvement of minorities in the films. 

However, as presented in this paper, the depiction of ethnic minority groups in these films was based on on-site research. Thus, the inclusion of folksongs and other minority customs cannot be simply considered stereotypical representations of minorities; indeed, they are reality-based representations. Moreover, other scholars emphasize the participation of ethnic minority groups in the production of these films, which gave them agency in the depiction of their own culture. It is an arbitrary judgment to condemn all depictions of minority uniqueness as exaggerations devoted to enhancing stereotypes and assimilation. Indeed, other scholars argue that minority films played a decisive role in the preservation of minority culture. For instance, Lu Xinyu argues that "the historical fact” is that “cultures of ethnic minorities have largely benefited from the large-scale ethnic identification and investigation project begun by the PRC in the 1950s……"35Indeed, it is undeniable that the wide exposure to minority cultures on screen increased awareness and acknowledgment of these cultures. 

From another perspective, the presence of minority groups in minority films has further increased the awareness and even popularity of minority groups, which eventually led to positive economic impacts on ethnic minorities communities. The minority regions in which the films took place experienced significant growth in tourism after the films became popular. For instance, Dali, where the Bai ethnic located and Wuduojinhua filmed, became a province highly reliant on tourism as 44% of the annual revenue came from tourism, recorded in 2015.36Indeed, the figures in the film Wuduojinhua became a symbol in the region and a strategy they used to attract tourists, for they even created a sculpture of Peng in front of the government of Jianchuan county and named a “Peng cultural park” there.37 Therefore, we can see the beneficial influence of minority films on long-term economic developments. 

Conclusion 

In the end, the ethnic minority films of Changchun Film Studio such as Wuduojinhua, Liusanjie, and Visitors in the Icy Mountains, all reveal a complex interplay between right and responsibility. The composers of the films present a responsibility of illustrating the minority culture with authenticity rooted from their research, securing the right of the minorities to preserve and celebrate their traditional customs. Similarly, they also served a unifying socialist agenda, embedding minority narratives within China’s modernization. While debates persist over whether these films reinforced Han-centric stereotypes or empowered minority voices, their legacy lies in their ability to preserve traditions while fostering national cohesion. These films remind us that cultural representation is not just about visibility but about balancing the right to diversity with the responsibility of unity in a changing world. 

1Jiayi Wang, director. Wuduojinhua 五朵金花 [Five Golden Flowers]. Changchun Film Group Corporation, October 10, 1959. 

2Li Su, director. Liu Sanjie 刘三姐. Changchun Film Group Corporation, January 1, 1960. 3Xinshui Zhao, director. The Visitors on the Icy Mountain 冰山上的来客. Changchun Film Group Corporation, February 2, 1963. 

4Zhiqiu Wang; Zhiwen Zheng. “人民日报关注长春电影制片厂：帧帧光影 映照流金岁月[People's Daily Focuses on Changchun Film Studio: Frame Light and Shadow and Reflect the Golden Years].” June 13, 2024 5Lu, Xinyu. “Cinematic Representation of Ethnic Minorities in PRC and Postcolonialism” CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 22.5 (2020), 5. 

6 Zhiqiu Wang; Zhiwen Zheng. “People’s Daily Focuses” 

7Cheng Wang. “中国电影音乐之父”雷振用的普乐创作 [The Music Creation of ‘the Father of Chinese Film Music’ Lei Zhenbang].” Lantaishijie, February, 2015. 

8 Wei Qi. "《五朵金花》艺术生命的承载体——白族民歌 [‘The Artistic Life Carrier of 'Wuduojinhua’ – Bai Ethnic Folk Songs]." Film Comment [Dianyingpinglun], 32. 

9 Yingjin Zhang. “From ‘Minority Film’ to ‘Minority Discourse’: Question of Nationhood and Ethnicity in Chinese Cinema.” Cinema Journal, 1997, 80. 

10Wei Qi, “The Artistice Life,” 32. 

11Cheng Wang, “The Music Creation,” 22. 

12Cheng Wang, “The Music Creation,” 22. 

13Wei Qi, “The Artistice Life,” 32. 

14Cheng Wang, “The Music Creation,” 22. 

15Zhu, Anping. “《冰山上的来客》：反特惊险电影具有里程碑意义的经典，一曲《花儿为什么这样红》传唱至今 [‘Visitors in the Icy Mountain’: A Milestone Classic in the Anti-Espionage Thriller Genre, with the Song ‘Why Are the Flowers So Red’ still Widely Sung to this Day].” Utopia, March 25, 2022. 

16Anping Zhu. “Visitor in.” 

17Cheng Wang, “The Music Creation,” 22. 

18Zhang, Xue. “Analyze the Folk,” 133. 

19Zhang, Xue. “Analyze the Folk,” 133. 

20Shouying Yuan. “影视《五朵金花》中白族文化生活的艺术诠释 [Artistic Interpretation of Bai Ethnic Culture and Life in the Film 'Wuduojinhua'].” Qunwentiandi, 2011 

21 Yuan, Shouying. “Artistic Interpretation”, 21. 

22 Yuan, Shouying. “Artistic Interpretation”, 21. 

23Fang, Hui. “少数民族题材影视的地方性双重生产 [Dual Local Production of Ethnic Minority-Themed Films and Television].” Chuanmeiyishu, (No.7) 2017. 103-104. 

24Fang, Hui. “Dual Local”, 104. 

25Fang, Hui. “Dual Local”, 104.

26Wei Qi, “The Artistice Life,” 32. 

27Cheng Wang, “The Music Creation,” 22. 

28Anping Zhu. “Visitor in.” 

29Anping Zhu. “Visitor in.” 

30Yingjin Zhang. “From ‘Minority Film’,” 80. 

31Yingjin Zhang. “From ‘Minority Film’,” 80. 

32Yingjin Zhang. “From ‘Minority Film’,” 80. 

33Fang, Hui. “Dual Local”, 102 

34Fang, Hui. “Dual Local”, 102

35 Lu, Xinyu. “Cinematic Representation,” 8. 

36 Fang, Hui. “Dual Local”, 104. 

37 Fang, Hui. “Dual Local”, 104.

Primary Sources 

Zhao, Xinshui, director. The Visitors on the Icy Mountain 冰山上的来客. Changchun Film Group Corporation, February 2, 1963. 1:39:43. 

https://tv.cctv.com/2021/02/17/VIDEhBLtagtjFEIEI9ymXuuu210217.shtml Visitors on the Icy Mountain is a film that tells a story about the Chinese communist army in the Xinjiang region struggling against the espionage activity of the Nationalist party. It was filmed in Xinjiang and involved Uyghers as main actors. Overall, it included 

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distinctive ethnic minority features, presenting the idea of revolutionary heroism. From the film, we could observe the daily activities of the Uyghers and their interactions with the communist army. 

Su, Li, director. Liu Sanjie 刘三姐. Changchun Film Group Corporation, January 1, 1960. 1:49:53 https://tv.cctv.com/2014/12/14/VIDE1418544367523558.shtml Liu Sanjie is a film that tells a story about a legendary female figure of the Zhuang nationality who leads local farmers and fishers resisting the oppression of the rich landowner. Set in Guangxi, the film used folk songs throughout the movie to express their emotions and advocate revolutionary spirit. It illustrated the lifestyle and the unified spirit of the Zhuang community. 

Wang, Jiayi, director. Wuduojinhua 五朵金花 [Five Golden Flowers]. Changchun Film Group Corporation, October 10, 1959. 1:44:28. 

https://tv.cctv.com/2024/10/07/VIDEZF07CEWmgF1ESCZMehb5241007.shtml Five Golden Flowers is a film about a love story between a Bai nationality young man and the local community leader Jinhua (Golden Flower). Located at Yunnan, Dali, the story portrays the difficulties the young man Peng faced in his journey when looking for Golden Flower, for he met five different girls with the same name. In the end, he found the Golden Flower he loved with the help of others. The film presents the various life forms the Bai community lived in the context of the founding of the new country. 

Wang, Yunman. “论电影情节的丰富性和生活的现实性——从《冰山上的访客》开始 [Discussing the richness of the film plot and the reality of life -- starting from the Visitors on the Icy Mountain].” Guangimng Daily, 1964 

This newspaper article is an example of the criticism that Visitors on the Icy Mountain received as approaches to art were redefined at the beginning of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in China. In the article, Wang criticizes the dramatized and romanticized plot in the film, which relied on unreasonable developments and unrealistic depictions. Particularly, the romantic love between Aamir and Gulandam was criticized as absurd and twisted, belittling the Communist soldiers. 

Lin, Hanbiao. “看冰山上的来客 [Watching Visitors on the Icy Mountain].” Guangming Daily, 1964 

This article discusses drawbacks of the Visitors on the Icy Mountain, claiming that the film was too focused oncreating suspense for the audiences, depicting some critical scenes too vague. Thus, it lacked realism and reasonable explanation for some important plot developments. This article is another primary source that speaks to the contention of the film during the early stage of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. 

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Xie, Fengsong. “边防如铁——评影片《冰山上的来客》[Iron-Like Border Defense -- A Review of the Film"The Visitors on the Icy Mountain].” People’s Daily, November 25, 1963 Xie complimented the detailed and vivid depiction of characters in the “The Visitors on the Icy Mountains”, and he encouraged more development on counter espionage films similar to it. However, he also pointed out several weaknesses of the films; such as some actions of the characters lack a reasonable motive, making some parts of the film rough and bare. Thus, we can see that although the film was highly praised as it came out, there were still critics and commentaries on the details. 

Han, Jiangshan. “《冰山上的访客》关键是推翻无产阶级专政 [The key of ‘The Visitors on the Icy Mountain’ is to overthrow the dictatorship of the proletariat].” Heilongjiang Daily, October 19, 1969 

Han attacked the producer and scripter of “The Visitors on the Icy Mountains”. He condemned how they uglified the reality and pointed out how some scenes in the film symbolized the collapse of the proletariats. Additionally, he believed that the film had defamed the frontier soldiers and idealized their enemies. Overall, we can see a large shift in the attitude of critics towards the film and what kinds of comments the film faced in the period. 

Secondary Sources 

Lo, Kwai-Cheung. Ethnic Minority Cinema in China’s Nation-State Building. University of Michigan Press, 2025. 

This secondary source addresses the overall political context of ethnic minority films in the history of the People’s Republic of China. It provides examples of government policies towards ethnic minorities and argues that cinema served as a tool for political propaganda and cultural assimilation. The discussion of the film Wuduojinhua in the source also introduces the argument that minority films were used to advocate political ideas of the PRC government. 

Lu, Xinyu. “Cinematic Representation of Ethnic Minorities in PRC and Postcolonialism.” CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 22.5 (2020) 

https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3826&context=clcweb The paper argues that the postcolonial theory does not apply to Chinese cinema, and that postcolonial theory marginalizes ethnic minority films produced in the early People’s Republic of China. Lu suggests that minority films and related government policies have 

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helped protect minority cultures and maintain social justice. This provided context and evidence for the influence of ethnic minority films. 

Schein, Louisa. “Gender and Internal Orientalism in China.” Modern China 23, no. 1 (1997): 69–98. http://www.jstor.org/stable/189464. 

This secondary source offers a framework for understanding the orientalist depiction of minority groups in China. Schein discusses how marginalized minority groups were portrayed stereotypically and that this was particularly reinforced by the representation of women as exotic and sexualized. In a way, this article argues that internal orientalism influenced the social attitude and political policies of ethnic minorities and gender roles. 

Aynmous, “《冰山上的来客》当年多处情节被批评为虚假，今天看是否有道理？[‘Visitors on the Iceberg’ Was Criticized as False in Many Cases, Is it Justified Today?]” April 21, 2023. https://www.sohu.com/a/666161250_100031374 

Continuing discussions about Visitors on the Icey Mountain that resumed in the 1980s, this blogpost offers a contemporary review and highlights multiple unreasonable developments in the film’s plot. In addition to talking about how the film failed to convincingly construct the motivation of the characters, the article also underlines how the film did not portray the complex social environment in the period. 

Zhang, Yingjin. “From ‘Minority Film’ to ‘Minority Discourse’: Question of Nationhood and Ethnicity in Chinese Cinema.” Cinema Journal, no.3 (spring 1997): 73-90. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1225676 

Zhang analyzed multiple “minority films” within the broader context of Chinese society, emphasizing their role in shaping the public impression of minority groups while also discussing the connection between minority representation and state policies. Particularly, Zhang mentions how the films Liu Sanjie and Wuduojinhua presented the minorities stereotypically singing and dancing in colorful clothes to appeal to Han viewers. 

Hu, Puzhong. "冰山纯净，花儿鲜红，爱与忠诚永恒 [Icebergs Are Pure, Flowers Are Bright Red, Love and Loyalty Are Eternal]." GuangMing Daily, July 21, 2021 Hu discusses the hardships and efforts the participants experienced during the process of producing the film “Visitors on the Icy Mountain”. In the article, Hu discusses the participation of Xinjiang locals in the film and the popularization of the film’s song “Why are the flowers so Red”, which was derived from a Tajik folk song. This source challenges the perspective that minorities were portrayed only in a stereotypical fashion and instead offers a perspective that these films advocated for ethnic minority inclusion in Chinese society. 

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Wang, Zhiqiu; Zheng, Zhiwen. “人民日报关注长春电影制片厂：帧帧光影 映照流金岁月 [People's Daily Focuses on Changchun Film Studio: Frame Light and Shadow and Reflect the Golden Years].” June 13, 2024 

https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1807143904030722628&wfr=spider&for=pc The article discussed the founding of the Changchun Film Studio and emphasized its significance in the Chinese film industry. It addresses the inspiring influence of the studio in the film industry as it was a pioneer in various film genres. As such, the article provides background information for my argument about ethnic minority films produced by the Changchun film industry. 

Anonymous. “《冰山上的来客》在60年代与文革期间受到的批评，存在截然差异 [There is A Stark Difference between the Criticism ‘The Visitors on the Icy Mountain’ Received in the 1960s and During the Cultural Revolution].” March 31, 2023. 

https://www.sohu.com/a/661530079_100031374#comment_area 

This article analyzes two primary sources that commented on “The Visitors on the Icy Mountain”. The article argues that the commentary published in 1963 by Xie Fengsong was mostly meritorious, while the article published by Han Jiangshan in 1969 during the Cultural Revolution period was heavily biased in its attacks. The article shows how commentaries on the film changed with time and includes present-day perspectives. 

Qi, Wei. "《五朵金花》艺术生命的承载体-一白族民歌 [‘The Artistic Life Carrier of 'Wuduojinhua’ – Bai Ethnic Folk Songs]." Film Comment [Dianyingpinglun], October 22, 2010. https://www.doc88.com/p-1601455823658.html 

This article discusses how Wuduojinhua combined the beautiful landscape of Dali and the unique traditional customs of the Bai nationality. Particularly, it mentions the use of Shanxi dialect in the film and lists contributors to the songs thus providing evidence for how the film utilized songs and dances as representations of the minority groups. 

Yuan, Shouying. “影视《五朵金花》中白族文化生活的艺术诠释 [Artistic Interpretation of Bai Ethnic Culture and Life in the Film 'Wuduojinhua'].” Qunwentiandi, 2011.https://www.doc88.com/p-5029587776310.html 

The article argues that Wuduojinhua combines the representation of romantic love and socialist ideas in the Great Leap Forward period, illustrating new social relations between individuals during the period. This furthers my argument that ethnic minorities were not marginalized but instead celebrated by the minority films. 

Wang, Cheng. “中国电影音乐之父”雷振用的普乐创作 [The Music Creation of ‘the Father of Chinese Film Music’ Lei Zhenbang].” Lantaishijie, Feburary, 2015. https://www.doc88.com/p-9856609580621.html 

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Wang describes the personal background of Lei Zhenbang and his significance in Chinese film music. The article includes details about the motivation, contribution, and influence of Lei in the films Wuduojinhua, Liusanjie, and The Visitors in the Icy Mountain, thus providing details about the production process of these films. 

Fang, Hui. “少数民族题材影视的地方性双重生产 [Dual Local Production of Ethnic Minority-Themed Films and Television].” Chuanmeiyishu, (No.7) 2017. This article discusses the duality of the minority films, in which they, on one hand, accurately depicted minority groups with folk song and dances, while on the other hand enhancing internal orientalism with such a depiction. In particular, ethnic minority groups began to perform the identities presented in the films, to economically benefit from them. This article shows the tensions between stereotypical depictions and the celebration of ethnic minority cultures. 

Zhang, Xue. “赏析电影《刘三姐》的民族歌曲风格》[Analyze the Folk Song Style in the Film Liusanjie].” Yishuxueyuan, 2012. https://www.doc88.com/p-2713477217396.html The article talked about the context, production process, and influence of the film Liusanjie. Particularly, it closely discusses the utilization of the folk song style in the film and mentions its close connection with the Zhuang nationality, providing numerous detailed examples explaining and analyzing the folk songs that appeared in the film. 

Zhu, Anping. “《冰山上的来客》：反特惊险电影具有里程碑意义的经典，一曲《花儿为什么 这样红》传唱至今 [‘Visitors in the Icy Mountain’: A Milestone Classic in the Anti-Espionage Thriller Genre, with the Song ‘Why Are the Flowers So Red’ still Widely Sung to this Day].” Utopia, March 25, 2022. 

https://www.wyzxwk.com/Article/wenyi/2022/03/451867.html 

The article describes the production process of Visitors in the Icy Mountains, highlighting the hardships and challenges the production group experienced. In the end, the article mentions the achievements of the film after its release, presenting how influential the film became.